Romulus and Remus: Wolf-Reared Founders of Rome

The story of Romulus and Remus is the foundational myth of Rome, a tale of destiny, survival, and the brutal reality of power. More than just a legend, it is a narrative that the Romans themselves believed explained their origins, their character, and their divine favor. This saga, centered on twin brothers nursed by a She-wolf, encapsulates themes of fratricide, ambition, and the unyielding will to build an empire that would dominate the ancient world. It is a story that begins with tragedy, unfolds through miraculous intervention, and culminates in the act of fratricide that forever marked the city’s history.

The Mythical Origins: A Divine and Royal Bloodline

The origins of Romulus and Remus are steeped in divine intervention and royal intrigue. Their story begins in the ancient city of Alba Longa, a settlement founded by Ascanius, the son of the Trojan hero Aeneas. This connection immediately established Rome’s mythical link to the heroic world of Homer’s epics and the gods of Olympus.

The king of Alba Longa, Numitor, was a descendant of Aeneas. However, his reign was violently usurped by his younger brother, Amulius. To secure his stolen throne, Amulius murdered Numitor’s male heirs and forced his daughter, Rhea Silvia, to become a Vestal Virgin. This sacred vow of chastity was intended to prevent her from bearing any sons who could one day challenge Amulius’s rule. The gods, however, had other plans.

The war god Mars found Rhea Silvia and lay with her. From this union, she gave birth to twin boys, Romulus and Remus. Enraged and fearful, King Amulius ordered the infants to be drowned in the Tiber River. His servants placed the babies in a basket and cast them into the swollen waters, believing the currents would carry them to their doom.

The She-Wolf and the Shepherd: A Miraculous Salvation

Instead of sinking, the basket carrying the twins drifted downstream and eventually came to rest at the foot of the Palatine Hill, near a sacred fig tree known as the Ficus Ruminalis. Here, the cries of the infants attracted a remarkable savior: a She-wolf (Lupa). Far from being a threat, the wolf nurtured the boys, suckling them and keeping them warm. This iconic image, immortalized in countless works of art, including the famous Capitoline Wolf statue, became the most potent symbol of Rome’s fierce and wild origins.

The twins were not alone for long. They were discovered by Faustulus, the chief herdsman of the royal flocks. He and his wife, Acca Larentia, took the boys into their home and raised them as their own, giving them the names Romulus and Remus. The brothers grew up among shepherds and herdsmen, developing the strength, leadership, and martial skills that would define their futures.

The Discovery and the Overthrow of Amulius

As young men, the natural leadership of Romulus and Remus often brought them into conflict with others. During a quarrel with the shepherds of the deposed king Numitor, Remus was captured and taken to Alba Longa. Through a series of inquiries and the recognition of their true age and noble bearing, the truth of their birth was revealed. Faustulus confirmed their identity to Romulus, who then rallied a band of supporters.

The brothers led a revolt against the usurper Amulius, killing him and restoring their grandfather, Numitor, to the throne of Alba Longa. Rather than remain in Alba Longa, the ambitious young men decided to found a new city of their own at the very place where the She-wolf had saved them—the region of the seven hills near the Tiber River.

The Founding of Rome and the Fateful Fratricide

The decision to found a new city led to the central conflict of the legend. Both Romulus and Remus were natural leaders, and a dispute arose over who should be the sole founder and ruler of the new settlement, as well as on which hill it should be built. Romulus favored the Palatine Hill, while Remus preferred the Aventine Hill.

To settle the dispute, they agreed to seek a sign from the gods through augury, the practice of interpreting the will of the gods by observing the flight of birds. They took up positions on their respective hills. Remus was the first to see a sign: six vultures. However, Romulus soon after claimed to have seen twelve. The interpretation of this omen was contested. Did priority (Remus’s sighting) or number (Romulus’s twelve birds) hold greater weight?

In the ensuing events, the rivalry turned deadly. The most common version of the story recounts that as Romulus began to mark the sacred boundary of his new city (the pomerium) by plowing a furrow around the Palatine Hill, Remus mockingly jumped over the fledgling wall. This act was a grave religious offense, as the wall was a sacred, inviolable barrier. In a fit of rage, or perhaps to uphold the sanctity of the new city’s laws, Romulus struck down his brother, declaring, “So perish whoever else shall leap over my walls.” This act of fratricide—the killing of a sibling—became the original sin of Rome, a dark shadow that loomed over its history.

The Reign of Romulus and the Ascent of a City

With Remus dead, the city was named Rome (Roma) after its sole founder, Romulus. He became its first king and set about building its institutions. To populate the city, he established a sanctuary on the Capitoline Hill, offering asylum to exiles, fugitives, and runaway slaves. This provided the new settlement with inhabitants, but it created a new problem: a severe shortage of women.

The famous solution was the Rape of the Sabine Women. Romulus invited the neighboring Sabine tribe to a festival. During the festivities, the Roman men, at a signal from Romulus, seized the unmarried Sabine women and carried them off. This act led to war with the Sabines. The conflict was eventually resolved not by total victory, but by the intervention of the very women who had been abducted. Having grown attached to their Roman husbands, they pleaded for peace between their new families and their old ones. The Sabines and Romans merged, with the Sabine king, Titus Tatius, ruling jointly with Romulus for a time.

The reign of Romulus was marked by military success and the establishment of key Roman institutions:

The Legion and the Senate: He created Rome’s first army and a council of elders, the Senate, to advise him.
The Patrician Class: He established the original aristocratic families of Rome.
Religious Practices: He formalized many of the religious customs that would define Roman state religion.

According to legend, the reign of Romulus ended as mysteriously as it began. After a reign of 37 years, while he was reviewing his army on the Campus Martius, a violent storm descended. Romulus was enveloped in a thick cloud and disappeared from sight. He was never seen again. The Romans believed he had been taken up by the gods and deified, becoming the god Quirinus.

Historical and Archaeological Perspectives

While the story of Romulus and Remus is a powerful myth, historians and archaeologists have long debated the historical reality behind the legend. There is no direct archaeological evidence for the existence of the twins themselves. However, excavations on the Palatine Hill have revealed settlements dating back to the middle of the 8th century BC, which aligns roughly with the traditional date for the founding of Rome in 753 BC.

The myth likely evolved to explain and glorify the origins of the city. Elements like the fratricide may reflect the early, violent struggles for power between different communities on the various hills of Rome. The tale of the She-wolf could be a symbolic representation of the city’s fierce independence or perhaps a misunderstanding of the word “lupa,” which in Latin could also mean a prostitute, suggesting a more humble, human savior for the infants.

The following table summarizes the key symbolic interpretations of the main elements in the myth:

Element	Literal Interpretation	Symbolic Interpretation
Romulus and Remus	Historical twin founders of Rome.	Represent the dual nature of Rome: its capacity for both creation and destruction, order and conflict.
She-wolf (Lupa)	A wild animal that nursed the infants.	A symbol of Rome’s ferocity, martial spirit, and connection to the wild, untamed forces of nature. It represents divine favor.
Palatine Hill	The geographical location of the first settlement.	The heart of Roman power; the residence of later emperors. Its choice signifies a divine and strategic selection.
Fratricide	Romulus killing his brother Remus.	The “original sin” of Rome, explaining the internal political strife and civil wars that plagued Roman history. It underscores the primacy of the state over family ties.

The Enduring Legacy in Art and Culture

The legend of Romulus and Remus has been a profound source of inspiration for over two millennia. Its themes are universal, and its imagery is instantly recognizable.

Sculpture: The Capitoline Wolf is the most famous representation. (Note: The twin figures beneath the wolf were added during the Renaissance). This statue became an emblem of the city.
Literature: The story is recounted by all the great Roman historians, including Livy, Plutarch, and Dionysius of Halicarnassus. It has been revisited in poetry and prose throughout the ages.
Coinage: Roman coins frequently featured the image of the She-wolf suckling the twins, spreading the iconic symbol throughout the empire.
Modern Culture: The narrative continues to influence modern literature, film, and political discourse, often used as a metaphor for ambitious beginnings fraught with moral complexity.

For those wishing to delve deeper into the historical context of early Rome, the Encyclopedia Britannica’s entry on Rome provides an excellent starting point. To explore the archaeological findings on the Palatine Hill, the The History Blog often features updates on Roman archaeology. For a detailed analysis of ancient sources on the myth, Livius.org offers a comprehensive collection of texts.

Visiting the Myth Today

For modern travelers to Rome, the legend of Romulus and Remus is ever-present. Key sites connected to the myth include:

The Palatine Hill: You can walk among the ruins of the imperial palaces built on the hill where Romulus supposedly founded the city. Many Romans believed the “Hut of Romulus” was preserved here.
The Capitoline Museums: Home to the famed Capitoline Wolf statue.
The Roman Forum: The political and social heart of the ancient city, which grew from the settlement between the Palatine and Capitoline hills.
The Lupercal: A cave at the foot of the Palatine Hill, which tradition identified as the den of the She-wolf. While its exact location is debated, it remains a powerful part of the myth’s topography.

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The Archaeological Evidence for Early Rome

The legendary narrative of Romulus and Remus finds a fascinating, if complex, parallel in the archaeological record. Excavations on the Palatine Hill have revealed traces of Iron Age settlements dating back to the mid-8th century BC, precisely the era traditionally assigned to the city’s foundation. These findings include postholes for primitive huts and simple burial sites, painting a picture of a small, pastoral community. While no inscription bearing the twins’ names has been unearthed, the timing and location provide a compelling backdrop against which the legend could have been formed. The discovery of a section of an ancient wall on the Palatine, along with a rock-cut boundary known as the Lapis Niger in the Roman Forum, has been interpreted by some as potential physical evidence of the kind of foundational acts attributed to Romulus.

Cultural and Religious Institutions Attributed to Romulus

Beyond the act of city-building, Romulus is credited with establishing the fundamental structures of Roman society. To solidify his new city, he created the Roman Legions and the Roman Senate. The latter institution began as an advisory council of the city’s most prominent men, the patriarchs of the leading families who became known as Patres, from which the term “patrician” is derived. This body would endure for nearly a millennium, evolving into one of the most powerful political institutions in history. Furthermore, Romulus is traditionally seen as the originator of several key religious practices. He divided the population into three tribes and established the Curiae, which were not only political subdivisions but also formed the basis for religious worship, with each curia having its own rituals and festivals.

The Sabine Women and the Expansion of the Populace

A critical challenge facing the nascent city was the shortage of women. Romulus’s solution was both pragmatic and brutal, an event that would become known as the Rape of the Sabine Women. He invited the neighboring Sabine people to a festival and, at a given signal, his men seized the young Sabine women, carrying them off to become their wives. This act led to a series of wars with the Sabines, which were ultimately resolved not by total victory, but by a treaty and unification. The Sabine king, Titus Tatius, even ruled jointly with Romulus for a time. This episode, while morally fraught from a modern perspective, was crucial in the Roman historical tradition as it demonstrated the city’s early willingness to incorporate neighboring peoples, a policy that would become a hallmark of the later Republic and Empire. The integration of the Sabines doubled Rome’s citizen body and military strength, setting a precedent for assimilation.

Military Organization Under Romulus

The constant state of warfare in early Rome necessitated a robust military structure. Romulus is said to have organized the citizenry into a fighting force of 3,000 infantry and 300 cavalry, divided into units called legions. This early army was based on the Greek phalanx model, a dense formation of heavily armed soldiers. The success of this military was vital for the city’s survival, not only against the Sabines but also against other powerful neighbors like the city of Veii. The following table outlines the key military innovations attributed to this period:

Innovation	Description	Significance
Legiones	The first organized regiments of Roman infantry, initially 3,000 strong.	Provided a structured and reliable fighting force for defense and expansion.
Celeres	A personal guard of 300 cavalrymen for the king.	Acted as an elite military unit and the ruler’s bodyguard, a precursor to the Praetorian Guard.
Spolia Opima	The highest honor a Roman commander could earn, awarded for killing an enemy leader in single combat.	Romulus was the first to dedicate Spolia Opima, establishing a martial tradition that glorified personal valor.

The Mysterious Disappearance of Romulus

The end of Romulus’s life and reign is shrouded in as much mystery as its beginning. According to the historian Livy, after a reign of 37 years, Romulus was reviewing his army on the Campus Martius (Field of Mars) when a sudden storm descended, enveloping him in a thick cloud. When the storm cleared, the king was gone. The most prominent explanation offered to the public was that he had been ascended to the heavens to become the god Quirinus, a deity associated with the Roman state. This event, known as an apotheosis, served to deify the founder and legitimize the rule of his successors. However, Livy also notes an alternative, darker tradition: that the senators, discontent with his increasingly tyrannical rule, murdered him, dismembered his body, and concealed the pieces in their robes. This version reflects the later Roman Republic’s deep-seated suspicion of monarchical power.

The Legacy of Romulus in the Roman Succession

The disappearance of Romulus created an immediate constitutional crisis. The Senate, in a move that would echo through Roman history, was tasked with choosing a new ruler. This established the Interregnum, a period between kings. The Senate eventually selected Numa Pompilius, a Sabine known for his piety and wisdom, as the second king of Rome. This choice was strategic; it cemented the alliance with the Sabines and provided a counterbalance to the warlike nature of Romulus’s reign. Numa’s focus on establishing religious institutions, calendars, and priesthoods complemented the military and political foundations laid by Romulus, creating a more complete and stable society. The succession itself set a pattern for the transfer of power, albeit an imperfect one that would often be contested.

Remus in the Shadow of his Brother

While Romulus’s story is one of foundation and glory, the legacy of Remus is more nuanced and serves as a powerful symbolic counterpoint. His death at the hands of his brother was not merely a familial tragedy but a foundational myth about the nature of Roman law and authority. The killing of Remus for transgressing the pomerium, the sacred boundary of the city, established a paramount principle: the inviolability of Rome’s walls and the supreme authority of its ruler. Remus became a perpetual cautionary tale against challenging the state’s power. In some later Roman and post-Roman interpretations, the conflict between the twins has been seen as representing the eternal struggle between different aspects of society. The following list explores the symbolic dichotomies they came to represent:

Order vs. Chaos: Romulus represented the establishment of law and civic order, while Remus symbolized the disruptive, individualistic forces that threatened it.
Collective Good vs. Individual Right: The building of the city served the collective, whereas Remus’s leap over the wall was an act of personal defiance.
Founder vs. Sacrificial Victim: Some modern scholars interpret Remus as a foundation sacrifice, a mythical motif where a life is taken to magically strengthen a new city’s walls and ensure its future.

The Lupercalia Festival and its Connection to the Myth

The legend of the wolf-reared founders was not just a story from the past; it was actively commemorated in Roman religious life through the ancient festival of the Lupercalia. Held annually on February 15 at the Lupercal cave on the Palatine Hill, the rites were conducted by the Luperci, a priesthood. The ceremony involved the sacrifice of goats and a dog, after which two young men of noble birth were anointed with the blood. The ritual culminated in the Luperci running a circuit around the Palatine, striking bystanders, particularly women, with strips of goat hide. This act was believed to promote fertility and ease childbirth, a direct symbolic link to the she-wolf (Lupa) who nurtured the founders. The festival’s primitive and agrarian origins were reinterpreted to serve as a powerful, living reminder of Rome’s humble and miraculous beginnings, connecting every generation to the myth of Romulus and Remus.